Ritual theories almost always assume that ritual is a kind of human action, which makes it impossible to explain ritual spaces or objects that were designed to enact the ritual without human participation. The relic depository of Chaoyang North Pagoda was a completely sealed stone box that was clearly designed as a ritual space for chanting the Uṣṇīṣavijayā dhāraṇī. This ritual space—occluded from human access—contradicts contemporary understandings of ritual. By illuminating the relic depository from the emic perspective of medieval Buddhists and applying anthropological theories, this paper offers theoretical explanations for conditions in which religious rituals were primarily enacted through non-human agency.

Contrary to popular assumption, the thought world of the Pali discourses is well populated with gods and spirits, demons and ghosts, as picturesque as the imagination of a reader of Tolkien’s novels could wish for.

On how the Pāḷi Suttas embrace Brahmā, and not.

Among the nature-deities the tale under discussion depicts as confronting Padmasambhava, two (see below) are among the nine deities known as bod kyi srid pa chags pa’i lha, meaning the original deities of Tibet, whose function is to protect the land and people of Tibet.

This paper analyzes the depiction of nature-deities in the 14th-century Padma bka’thang, focusing on the supernatural conflict between Padmasambhava and Tibetan deities resisting his arrival. It interprets this confrontation as a reflection of deeper cultural and religious dynamics during Tibet’s early Buddhist era.

Therefore, since it is extremely incongruous to kill and offer up sentient beings to pure gods who are kind and caring, it is only right and proper that you renounce such practices and worship these deities with abundant clean offerings instead.

In addressing Hindu worshippers who engage in animal sacrifice, Jamyang Khyentse highlights the karmic repercussions of taking life and challenges the notion that compassionate deities would ever endorse such a practice.

Formerly, when this young deva was a human being, he undertook faith, virtue, learning, generosity, and wisdom…

The devas complained when a poor man was reborn in heaven, even outshining them!

He should dedicate an offering
To the deities there.
Venerated, they venerate him

A few verses on how to become “beloved of the gods” get a framing narrative glorifying the Magadha Kingdom.

Many Buddhist kingdoms (down to the present day) create (or promote) apocryphal stories to justify their Buddhist bona fides, and this sutta may be such an example from King Ashoka’s time.

Open are the doors to the deathless!
Let those with ears show their faith

After his awakening, the Buddha hesitated to teach, thinking that the Dhamma is too subtle for people to understand. But Brahmā Sahampati appears and encourages him to teach, pointing out that there are those with “little dust in their eyes” who will understand the teachings.

The seer of the destruction of birth,
Compassionate, knows the one-way path

Brahma Sahampati praises the Buddha’s reflections on the power of Satipaṭṭhāna Meditation.

Then, dear sirs, he must be an anger-eating yakkha.

When an ugly spirit takes Sakka’s throne, the gods were outraged. But the more they complained, the prettier he became. Sakka realized this was the so-called “anger-eating demon”, and defeated him by treating him with kindness and respect instead.

… why bother a renunciate?

When a mendicant falls asleep in the middle of the day, a deity tries to rouse them. But not all is at it seems.

Once upon a time, mendicants, a battle was fought between the gods and the demons…

Fleeing the demon host, Sakka’s chariot risks endangering the nests of little birds in the forest. Rather than render the birds homeless, Sakka instructs his charioteer to turn back, even at the cost of his life.

… when Sakka, lord of the devas, was a human being, he adopted and undertook seven vows

On the eighth day of the fortnight, mendicants, the ministers and counselors of the Four Great Kings wander about the world…

The gods rejoice when they see people practicing well.

… he sank and melted down and wasn’t able to stay still. It’s like when ghee or oil is poured onto sand: it sinks and melts down, and can’t remain

A god from the Pure Abodes visits the Buddha and complains about how busy he is.

… the god Kāmada said to the Buddha, “It’s too hard, Blessed One! It’s just too hard!”

The deity Kāmada addresses the Buddha with a series of cryptic statements lamenting the difficulty of spiritual practice. The Buddha agrees, but points out that true practitioners do it even though it’s hard.

This is indeed that Jeta’s Grove,
frequented by the Saṅgha of hermits…

A deity who had been the Buddha’s supporter Anāthapiṇḍika in his former life comes to the Buddha and speaks verses in celebration of the Jeta’s Grove, good deeds, the Dhamma, and Venerable Sāriputta.

When a deva is due to pass away from a company of devas, five prognostic signs appear…

How does a god die?

But Mahākassapa refused those deities…

A deva-king disguises himself to give alms to Ven. Mahā Kassapa.

I was a servant working in other people’s houses. But I was very fortunate…

Only those who do good deeds are reborn in heaven.

To witness the eerie spectacle of a medium entering a trance state and being possessed by the Oracle is to confront profound questions

… it is impossible that they should teach the path to that which they neither know nor see

The simile of the blind leading the blind followed by lovely similes for the chords of sensual pleasure and the hindrances, as well as for their overcoming via the limitless, divine abidings.

Only a man could dream of Heaven as a place where he can lie about all day, surrounded by beautiful women

On how the Buddhists transformed the Indian image of heaven.

The way the denizens of the ancient Indian pantheon appear in early Buddhist texts exemplifies a mode of thought that scholars have called “inclusivism”.

… individual Brahmās (Sahāṃpati, Baka and an unnamed Brahmā) have different characters … lower than the Buddha and his great disciples[, their] individual names are a new design, not shared in the Vedic tradition of Brahmanism.

They do not know bliss
Who have not seen Nandana

A deva thinks his pleasures are supreme.

If we study these teachings we will gain deeper understanding of how we should purify our own minds, and by studying the responses of the gods we can find models for our own behaviour in relation to the Master and his teaching.

A short survey of the Buddha’s interactions with the Devas.

Thought is the source of desire.

A fairy sings a love song for the Buddha, and Sakka asks a few deep questions.

… sensual pleasures are time-consuming, full of suffering and despair, and the danger in them is greater still

A deva tried to convince a young monk to enjoy sensual pleasures and the Buddha rebukes the angel with a series of verses explaining that this young monk is already an arahant.

[A meditator’s] physical discomfort is not completely settled, their dullness and drowsiness is not completely eradicated, and their restlessness and remorse is not completely eliminated. Because of this they practice absorption dimly, as it were. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in the company of the gods of corrupted radiance.

A lay person becomes confused when encouraged to develop the “limitless” and “expansive” liberations, and asks Venerable Anuruddha to explain whether they are the same or different.